1- Introduction to the Species Vitis vinifera L. - Common Grape vine
1.1- Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Rosids
Order: Vitales
Family: Vitaceae
Genus: Vitis L.
Species: Vitis vinifera L.
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Rosids
Order: Vitales
Family: Vitaceae
Genus: Vitis L.
Species: Vitis vinifera L.
1.2- Species Vitis vinifera L. - Common grape vine
+ Overview
Vitis vinifera L. (common grape vine) is a species of Vitis, native to the Mediterranean region, central Europe, and southwestern Asia, from Morocco and Portugal north to southern Germany and east to northern Iran. There are currently between 5,000 and 10,000 varieties of Vitis vinifera grapes though only a few are of commercial significance for wine and table grape production.
The wild grape is often classified as Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris (in some classifications considered Vitis sylvestris), with Vitis vinifera subsp. vinifera restricted to cultivated forms. Domesticated vines have hermaphrodite flowers, but subsp. sylvestris is dioecious (male and female flowers on separate plants) and pollination is required for fruit to develop.
The grape is eaten fresh, processed to make wine or juice, or dried to produce raisins. Cultivars of Vitis vinifera form the basis of the majority of wines produced around the world. All of the familiar wine varieties belong to Vitis vinifera, which is cultivated on every continent except for Antarctica, and in all the major wine regions of the world.
+ Overview
Vitis vinifera L. (common grape vine) is a species of Vitis, native to the Mediterranean region, central Europe, and southwestern Asia, from Morocco and Portugal north to southern Germany and east to northern Iran. There are currently between 5,000 and 10,000 varieties of Vitis vinifera grapes though only a few are of commercial significance for wine and table grape production.
The wild grape is often classified as Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris (in some classifications considered Vitis sylvestris), with Vitis vinifera subsp. vinifera restricted to cultivated forms. Domesticated vines have hermaphrodite flowers, but subsp. sylvestris is dioecious (male and female flowers on separate plants) and pollination is required for fruit to develop.
The grape is eaten fresh, processed to make wine or juice, or dried to produce raisins. Cultivars of Vitis vinifera form the basis of the majority of wines produced around the world. All of the familiar wine varieties belong to Vitis vinifera, which is cultivated on every continent except for Antarctica, and in all the major wine regions of the world.
+ History
The cultivation of the domesticated grape began 6,000-8,000 years ago in the Near East. Yeast, one of the earliest domesticated microorganisms, occurs naturally on the skins of grapes, leading to the innovation of alcoholic drinks such as wine. The earliest archeological evidence for a dominant position of wine-making in human culture dates from 8,000 years ago in Georgia. The oldest known winery was found in Armenia, dating to around 4000 BC. By the 9th century AD the city of Shiraz was known to produce some of the finest wines in the Middle East. Thus it has been proposed that Syrah red wine is named after Shiraz, a city in Persia where the grape was used to make Shirazi wine. Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics record the cultivation of purple grapes, and history attests to the ancient Greeks, Phoenicians, and Romans growing purple grapes for both eating and wine production. The growing of grapes would later spread to other regions in Europe, as well as North Africa, and eventually in North America.
In North America, native grapes belonging to various species of the Vitis genus proliferate in the wild across the continent, and were a part of the diet of many Native Americans, but were considered by European colonists to be unsuitable for wine. Vitis vinifera cultivars were imported for that purpose.
The cultivation of the domesticated grape began 6,000-8,000 years ago in the Near East. Yeast, one of the earliest domesticated microorganisms, occurs naturally on the skins of grapes, leading to the innovation of alcoholic drinks such as wine. The earliest archeological evidence for a dominant position of wine-making in human culture dates from 8,000 years ago in Georgia. The oldest known winery was found in Armenia, dating to around 4000 BC. By the 9th century AD the city of Shiraz was known to produce some of the finest wines in the Middle East. Thus it has been proposed that Syrah red wine is named after Shiraz, a city in Persia where the grape was used to make Shirazi wine. Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics record the cultivation of purple grapes, and history attests to the ancient Greeks, Phoenicians, and Romans growing purple grapes for both eating and wine production. The growing of grapes would later spread to other regions in Europe, as well as North Africa, and eventually in North America.
In North America, native grapes belonging to various species of the Vitis genus proliferate in the wild across the continent, and were a part of the diet of many Native Americans, but were considered by European colonists to be unsuitable for wine. Vitis vinifera cultivars were imported for that purpose.
2- Characteristics of the Species Vitis vinifera L. - Common grape vine
2.1- Description
+ The plants
The grape plant is usually a woody vine, climbing by means of tendrils (modified branches) and when untrained often reaching a length of 17 metres (56 feet) or more. In arid regions it may form an almost erect shrub.
It is a liana growing to 32 m (35 yards) in length, with flaky bark.
+ The leaves
The leaves are alternate, palmately lobed, 5-20 cm (2.0-7.9 in) long and broad, and always tooth-edged.
+ The flowers
Small greenish flowers, in clusters, precede the fruit, which varies in colour from almost black to green, red, and amber.
+ The fruits
The fruit is a berry, known as a grape; in the wild species it is 6 mm (0.24 in) diameter and ripens dark purple to blackish with a pale wax bloom; in cultivated plants it is usually much larger, up to 3 cm (1.2 in) long, and can be green, red, or purple (black).
Botanically, the fruit is a berry, more or less globular, within the juicy pulp of which lie the seeds. In many varieties the fruit develops a whitish powdery coating, or bloom.
+ The seeds
One grape fruit can contain1-4 seeds. The seeds of grape fruits are small, about 1-3 mm.
Seedless cultivars now make up the overwhelming majority of table grape plantings. Because grapevines are vegetatively propagated by cuttings, the lack of seeds does not present a problem for reproduction.
+ The plants
The grape plant is usually a woody vine, climbing by means of tendrils (modified branches) and when untrained often reaching a length of 17 metres (56 feet) or more. In arid regions it may form an almost erect shrub.
It is a liana growing to 32 m (35 yards) in length, with flaky bark.
+ The leaves
The leaves are alternate, palmately lobed, 5-20 cm (2.0-7.9 in) long and broad, and always tooth-edged.
+ The flowers
Small greenish flowers, in clusters, precede the fruit, which varies in colour from almost black to green, red, and amber.
+ The fruits
The fruit is a berry, known as a grape; in the wild species it is 6 mm (0.24 in) diameter and ripens dark purple to blackish with a pale wax bloom; in cultivated plants it is usually much larger, up to 3 cm (1.2 in) long, and can be green, red, or purple (black).
Botanically, the fruit is a berry, more or less globular, within the juicy pulp of which lie the seeds. In many varieties the fruit develops a whitish powdery coating, or bloom.
+ The seeds
One grape fruit can contain1-4 seeds. The seeds of grape fruits are small, about 1-3 mm.
Seedless cultivars now make up the overwhelming majority of table grape plantings. Because grapevines are vegetatively propagated by cuttings, the lack of seeds does not present a problem for reproduction.
Grape fruits
|
Grape cross-section
|
2.2- Origin and Distribution
+ Origin
The Common grape vine or the wine grape Vitis vinifera originated in southern Europe and southwestern Asia. The species occur in widely different geographical areas and show a great diversity of form.
+ Distribution
In Europe, Vitis vinifera is concentrated in the central and southern regions.
In Asia, in the western regions such as Anatolia, the Caucasus, the Middle east, and in China; in Africa, along the northern Mediterranean coast and in South Africa.
In North America, in California and also other areas like Michigan, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Washington State, British Columbia, Ontario and Québec; in South America in Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Peru and Brazil; and in Oceania in Australia and New Zealand.
+ Origin
The Common grape vine or the wine grape Vitis vinifera originated in southern Europe and southwestern Asia. The species occur in widely different geographical areas and show a great diversity of form.
+ Distribution
In Europe, Vitis vinifera is concentrated in the central and southern regions.
In Asia, in the western regions such as Anatolia, the Caucasus, the Middle east, and in China; in Africa, along the northern Mediterranean coast and in South Africa.
In North America, in California and also other areas like Michigan, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Washington State, British Columbia, Ontario and Québec; in South America in Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Peru and Brazil; and in Oceania in Australia and New Zealand.
Grape distribution 2012
2.3- Biological characteristics
+ Ecology
- Latitude
Grape vine or Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between 30 and 50 degrees latitude north and south of the equator. The world's southernmost vineyards are in the Central Otago region of New Zealand's South Island near the 45th parallel south, and the northernmost are in Flen, Sweden, just north of the 59th parallel north.
- Slope
Hillsides and slopes are preferred over flatter terrain: vines growing on a slope can receive a greater intensity of the sun's rays, with sunshine falling on an angle perpendicular to the hillside. In flatter terrain, the intensity of the sunlight is diluted as it spreads out across a wider surface area. Small slopes that are elevated above surrounding ground are the best and safest places for crops, because these small elevations are less prone to frost. Additionally, a slope affords better drainage, obviating the possibility that the vine might sit in overly moist soil. In cooler regions of the northern hemisphere, south-facing slopes receive more hours of sunlight and are preferred; in warmer climes, north-facing slopes are preferred. In the southern hemisphere, these orientations are reversed.
- Climate
Climate is the most significant factor in determining a grape’s inherent qualities. Each grape species has a uniquely preferred environment for ideal growing. Because climates vary from country to country, selecting the best strain is an important decision in grape cultivation. In addition, because climatic factors such as temperature and rain can be unpredictable and uncontrollable, each year will produce unique qualities and yields of grapes.
Grape vines need approximately 1300-1500 hours of sunshine during the growing season and around 690 millimetres (27 in) of rainfall throughout the year in order to produce grapes suitable for winemaking. In ideal circumstances, the vine will receive most of the rainfall during the winter and spring months: rain at harvesttimecan create many hazards, such as fungal diseases and berry splitting. The optimum weather during the growing season is a long, warm summer that allows the grapes the opportunity to ripen fully and to develop a balance between the levels of acids and sugars in the grape. Hot and sunny climates have a frost-free growing season of 200 days or more. These climates allow grapes to ripen faster with higher sugar levels and lower acidity. Cooler climates have a frost-free growing season of around 150-160 days. Cooler seasons force the grapes to ripen earlier which produces a fresher and more acidic harvest. In general, the average yearly temperature for most crops should average around 15 °C (59 °F) in order for the highest quality to be achieved in each grape.
- Soil
Quality soil is important to allow plants to have better root systems. The growth and health of a vine can be affected if the soil quality is poor. Different grape species prefer various soil conditions, although there are general quality factors. Favorable soil conditions include: aeration, loose texture, good drainage and moderate fertility. Drainage factors are cited as the most important soil characteristic to affect grape vine growth. When root growth is restricted due to bad soil, vine growth and fruit yields lessen and plant survival rates can dip to only a few years.
+ Ecology
- Latitude
Grape vine or Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between 30 and 50 degrees latitude north and south of the equator. The world's southernmost vineyards are in the Central Otago region of New Zealand's South Island near the 45th parallel south, and the northernmost are in Flen, Sweden, just north of the 59th parallel north.
- Slope
Hillsides and slopes are preferred over flatter terrain: vines growing on a slope can receive a greater intensity of the sun's rays, with sunshine falling on an angle perpendicular to the hillside. In flatter terrain, the intensity of the sunlight is diluted as it spreads out across a wider surface area. Small slopes that are elevated above surrounding ground are the best and safest places for crops, because these small elevations are less prone to frost. Additionally, a slope affords better drainage, obviating the possibility that the vine might sit in overly moist soil. In cooler regions of the northern hemisphere, south-facing slopes receive more hours of sunlight and are preferred; in warmer climes, north-facing slopes are preferred. In the southern hemisphere, these orientations are reversed.
- Climate
Climate is the most significant factor in determining a grape’s inherent qualities. Each grape species has a uniquely preferred environment for ideal growing. Because climates vary from country to country, selecting the best strain is an important decision in grape cultivation. In addition, because climatic factors such as temperature and rain can be unpredictable and uncontrollable, each year will produce unique qualities and yields of grapes.
Grape vines need approximately 1300-1500 hours of sunshine during the growing season and around 690 millimetres (27 in) of rainfall throughout the year in order to produce grapes suitable for winemaking. In ideal circumstances, the vine will receive most of the rainfall during the winter and spring months: rain at harvesttimecan create many hazards, such as fungal diseases and berry splitting. The optimum weather during the growing season is a long, warm summer that allows the grapes the opportunity to ripen fully and to develop a balance between the levels of acids and sugars in the grape. Hot and sunny climates have a frost-free growing season of 200 days or more. These climates allow grapes to ripen faster with higher sugar levels and lower acidity. Cooler climates have a frost-free growing season of around 150-160 days. Cooler seasons force the grapes to ripen earlier which produces a fresher and more acidic harvest. In general, the average yearly temperature for most crops should average around 15 °C (59 °F) in order for the highest quality to be achieved in each grape.
- Soil
Quality soil is important to allow plants to have better root systems. The growth and health of a vine can be affected if the soil quality is poor. Different grape species prefer various soil conditions, although there are general quality factors. Favorable soil conditions include: aeration, loose texture, good drainage and moderate fertility. Drainage factors are cited as the most important soil characteristic to affect grape vine growth. When root growth is restricted due to bad soil, vine growth and fruit yields lessen and plant survival rates can dip to only a few years.
+ Annual growth cycle of grapevines
The annual growth cycle of grapevines is the process that takes place in the vineyard each year, beginning with bud break in the spring and culminating in leaf fall in autumn followed by winter dormancy. From a winemaking perspective, each step in the process plays a vital role in the development of grapes with ideal characteristics for making wine. Viticulturalists and vineyard managers monitor the effect of climate, vine disease and pests in facilitating or impeding the vines progression from bud break, flowering, fruit set, veraison, harvesting, leaf fall and dormancy-reacting if need be with the use of viticultural practices like canopy management, irrigation, vine training and the use of agrochemicals. The stages of the annual growth cycle usually become observable within the first year of a vine's life. The amount of time spent at each stage of the growth cycle depends on a number of factors-most notably the type of climate (warm or cool) and the characteristics of the grape variety.
The annual growth cycle of grapevines is the process that takes place in the vineyard each year, beginning with bud break in the spring and culminating in leaf fall in autumn followed by winter dormancy. From a winemaking perspective, each step in the process plays a vital role in the development of grapes with ideal characteristics for making wine. Viticulturalists and vineyard managers monitor the effect of climate, vine disease and pests in facilitating or impeding the vines progression from bud break, flowering, fruit set, veraison, harvesting, leaf fall and dormancy-reacting if need be with the use of viticultural practices like canopy management, irrigation, vine training and the use of agrochemicals. The stages of the annual growth cycle usually become observable within the first year of a vine's life. The amount of time spent at each stage of the growth cycle depends on a number of factors-most notably the type of climate (warm or cool) and the characteristics of the grape variety.
- Bud break
The grape starts its annual growth cycle in the spring with bud break. In the Northern Hemisphere, this stage begins around March while in the Southern Hemisphere it begins around September when daily temperatures begin to surpass 10 °C (50 °F). If the vine had been pruned during the winter, the start of this cycle is signaled by a "bleeding" of the vine. This bleeding occurs when the soil begins to warm and osmotic forces pushes water, containing a low concentration of organic acids, hormones, minerals and sugars, up from the root system of the vine and it is expelled from the cuts (or "wounds") left over from pruning the vine. During this period a single vine can "bleed" up to 5 litres (1.3 US gal) of water.
Tiny buds on the vine start to swell and eventually shoots begin to grow from the buds. Buds are the small part of the vine that rest between the vine's stem and the petiole (leaf stem). Inside the buds contain usually three primordial shoots. These buds appear in the summer of previous growth cycle green and covered in scales. During winter dormancy they turn brown until the spring when the vine begins the process of bud break and the first sign of green in the vineyard emerges in the form of tiny shoots.[3] The energy to facilitate this growth comes from reserves of carbohydrate stored in roots and wood of the vine from the last growth cycle. Eventually the shoots sprout tiny leaves that can begin the process of photosynthesis, producing the energy to accelerate growth. In warm climates, after about 4 weeks the growth of the shoots starts to rapidly accelerate with the shoots growing in length an average of 3 cm (1 in) a day.
In temperate climates, where temperatures can reach above 10 °C (50 °F) in mid-winter, some early budding varieties (such as Chardonnay) can be at risk of premature bud break. This is a potential viticultural hazard in places like the Margaret River region of Western Australia where warm currents from the Indian Ocean can coax Chardonnay vines to prematurely bud in the mid-winter month of July. After bud break, the young shoots are very vulnerable to frost damage with vineyard managers going to great lengths protect the fragile shoots should temperature dramatically drop below freezing. This can include setting up heaters or wind circulators in the vineyard to keep cold air from settling on the vines.
The grape starts its annual growth cycle in the spring with bud break. In the Northern Hemisphere, this stage begins around March while in the Southern Hemisphere it begins around September when daily temperatures begin to surpass 10 °C (50 °F). If the vine had been pruned during the winter, the start of this cycle is signaled by a "bleeding" of the vine. This bleeding occurs when the soil begins to warm and osmotic forces pushes water, containing a low concentration of organic acids, hormones, minerals and sugars, up from the root system of the vine and it is expelled from the cuts (or "wounds") left over from pruning the vine. During this period a single vine can "bleed" up to 5 litres (1.3 US gal) of water.
Tiny buds on the vine start to swell and eventually shoots begin to grow from the buds. Buds are the small part of the vine that rest between the vine's stem and the petiole (leaf stem). Inside the buds contain usually three primordial shoots. These buds appear in the summer of previous growth cycle green and covered in scales. During winter dormancy they turn brown until the spring when the vine begins the process of bud break and the first sign of green in the vineyard emerges in the form of tiny shoots.[3] The energy to facilitate this growth comes from reserves of carbohydrate stored in roots and wood of the vine from the last growth cycle. Eventually the shoots sprout tiny leaves that can begin the process of photosynthesis, producing the energy to accelerate growth. In warm climates, after about 4 weeks the growth of the shoots starts to rapidly accelerate with the shoots growing in length an average of 3 cm (1 in) a day.
In temperate climates, where temperatures can reach above 10 °C (50 °F) in mid-winter, some early budding varieties (such as Chardonnay) can be at risk of premature bud break. This is a potential viticultural hazard in places like the Margaret River region of Western Australia where warm currents from the Indian Ocean can coax Chardonnay vines to prematurely bud in the mid-winter month of July. After bud break, the young shoots are very vulnerable to frost damage with vineyard managers going to great lengths protect the fragile shoots should temperature dramatically drop below freezing. This can include setting up heaters or wind circulators in the vineyard to keep cold air from settling on the vines.
- Flowering
Depending on temperatures, 40-80 days after bud break the process of flowering begins with small flower clusters appearing on the tips of the young shoots looking like buttons. Flowering occurs when average daily temperatures stay between 15-20 °C (59-68 °F) which in the Northern Hemisphere wine regions is generally around May and for the Southern Hemisphere regions around November. A few weeks after the initial clusters appear, the flowers start to grow in size with individual flowers becoming observable. It is during this stage of flowering that the pollination and fertilization of the grapevine takes place with the resulting product being a grape berry, containing 1-4 seeds.
Most cultivated Vitis vinifera grape vines are hermaphroditic, with both male stamens and female ovaries, while many wild grapes are either male, producing pollen but no fruit, or female, producing fruit only if a pollinator is nearby. Hermaphroditic vines are preferred for cultivation because each vine is more likely to self-pollinate and produce fruit.
At the beginning of the flowering process the only part that is visible is the fused cap of petals known as the calyptra. Shortly after the calyptra is shed, liberating the pollen from the anthers of the stamen. Wind and insects generally play only a small role in aiding pollination, with the process being mostly self-contained within the vine. But cross-pollination between vine species is possible as in the cases of the origins of several grape varieties like Cabernet Sauvignon (a cross pollination of Cabernet Franc and Sauvignon blanc) and Petite Sirah (a cross of Syrah and Peloursin). During the process of fertilization, the pollen fertilizes the ovary which produces seeds as the flower begins the transformation into a grape berry, encapsulating the seed. Detrimental weather (cold, wind & rain) can severely affect the flowering process, causing many flowers not to be fertilized and produce a group. It is during this time when the buds that will become next years crops begin to form.
Depending on temperatures, 40-80 days after bud break the process of flowering begins with small flower clusters appearing on the tips of the young shoots looking like buttons. Flowering occurs when average daily temperatures stay between 15-20 °C (59-68 °F) which in the Northern Hemisphere wine regions is generally around May and for the Southern Hemisphere regions around November. A few weeks after the initial clusters appear, the flowers start to grow in size with individual flowers becoming observable. It is during this stage of flowering that the pollination and fertilization of the grapevine takes place with the resulting product being a grape berry, containing 1-4 seeds.
Most cultivated Vitis vinifera grape vines are hermaphroditic, with both male stamens and female ovaries, while many wild grapes are either male, producing pollen but no fruit, or female, producing fruit only if a pollinator is nearby. Hermaphroditic vines are preferred for cultivation because each vine is more likely to self-pollinate and produce fruit.
At the beginning of the flowering process the only part that is visible is the fused cap of petals known as the calyptra. Shortly after the calyptra is shed, liberating the pollen from the anthers of the stamen. Wind and insects generally play only a small role in aiding pollination, with the process being mostly self-contained within the vine. But cross-pollination between vine species is possible as in the cases of the origins of several grape varieties like Cabernet Sauvignon (a cross pollination of Cabernet Franc and Sauvignon blanc) and Petite Sirah (a cross of Syrah and Peloursin). During the process of fertilization, the pollen fertilizes the ovary which produces seeds as the flower begins the transformation into a grape berry, encapsulating the seed. Detrimental weather (cold, wind & rain) can severely affect the flowering process, causing many flowers not to be fertilized and produce a group. It is during this time when the buds that will become next years crops begin to form.
- Fruit set
The stage of fruit set follows flowering almost immediately, when the fertilized flower begins to develop a seed and grape berry to protect the seed. In the Northern Hemisphere, this normally takes place in May and in the Southern Hemisphere in November. This stage is very critical for wine production since it determines the potential crop yield. Not every flower on the vine gets fertilized, with the unfertilized flowers eventually falling off the vine. The percentage of fertilized flowers averages around 30 but can get as high as 60 or be much lower. Climate and the health of the vine play an important role with low humidity, high temperatures and water stress having the potential of severely reducing the amount flowers that get fertilized. Coulure occurs when there is an imbalance of carbohydrate levels in the vine tissues and some berries fail to set or simply fall off the bunch. Varieties like Grenache and Malbec are prone to this abnormal fruit set. Millerandage occurs when some fertilized flowers do not form seeds but only small berry clusters. Grape berry size depends on the number of seeds so berries with no seeds will be significantly smaller than berries containing seeds. On one cluster there may be berries of various sizes which can create problems during winemaking due to the varying "skin to pulp" ratio among the grapes. This can be caused by vine disease, such as fanleaf, or by a boron deficiency in the vine. Gewürztraminer and the Chardonnay clones IA and Mendoza are both prone to millerandage.
Source: Annual growth cycle of grapevines - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The stage of fruit set follows flowering almost immediately, when the fertilized flower begins to develop a seed and grape berry to protect the seed. In the Northern Hemisphere, this normally takes place in May and in the Southern Hemisphere in November. This stage is very critical for wine production since it determines the potential crop yield. Not every flower on the vine gets fertilized, with the unfertilized flowers eventually falling off the vine. The percentage of fertilized flowers averages around 30 but can get as high as 60 or be much lower. Climate and the health of the vine play an important role with low humidity, high temperatures and water stress having the potential of severely reducing the amount flowers that get fertilized. Coulure occurs when there is an imbalance of carbohydrate levels in the vine tissues and some berries fail to set or simply fall off the bunch. Varieties like Grenache and Malbec are prone to this abnormal fruit set. Millerandage occurs when some fertilized flowers do not form seeds but only small berry clusters. Grape berry size depends on the number of seeds so berries with no seeds will be significantly smaller than berries containing seeds. On one cluster there may be berries of various sizes which can create problems during winemaking due to the varying "skin to pulp" ratio among the grapes. This can be caused by vine disease, such as fanleaf, or by a boron deficiency in the vine. Gewürztraminer and the Chardonnay clones IA and Mendoza are both prone to millerandage.
Source: Annual growth cycle of grapevines - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
+ Chemistry
- Phenolics
Vitis vinifera contains many phenolic compounds. Anthocyanins can be found in the skin of the berries, hydroxycinnamic acids in the pulp and condensed tannins of the proanthocyanidins type in the seeds.
Phenolic content of grape skin varies with cultivar, soil composition, climate, geographic origin, and cultivation practices or exposure to diseases, such as fungal infections.
- Stilbenoids
Stilbenoids can be found in the skin and in wood.
Trans-resveratrol is a phytoalexin produced against the growth of fungal pathogens such as Botrytis cinerea and delta-viniferin is another grapevine phytoalexin produced following fungal infection by Plasmopara viticola.
Astringin is a stilbenoid. It is the piceatannol glucoside. It can be found in the bark of Picea sitchensis or Picea abies (Norway spruce). It is also present in Vitis vinifera cells cultures and in wine.
Resveratrol is found in widely varying amounts among grape varieties, primarily in their skins and seeds, which, in muscadine grapes, have about one hundred times higher concentration than pulp. Fresh grape skin contains about 50 to 100 micrograms of resveratrol per gram.
- Phenolics
Vitis vinifera contains many phenolic compounds. Anthocyanins can be found in the skin of the berries, hydroxycinnamic acids in the pulp and condensed tannins of the proanthocyanidins type in the seeds.
Phenolic content of grape skin varies with cultivar, soil composition, climate, geographic origin, and cultivation practices or exposure to diseases, such as fungal infections.
- Stilbenoids
Stilbenoids can be found in the skin and in wood.
Trans-resveratrol is a phytoalexin produced against the growth of fungal pathogens such as Botrytis cinerea and delta-viniferin is another grapevine phytoalexin produced following fungal infection by Plasmopara viticola.
Astringin is a stilbenoid. It is the piceatannol glucoside. It can be found in the bark of Picea sitchensis or Picea abies (Norway spruce). It is also present in Vitis vinifera cells cultures and in wine.
Resveratrol is found in widely varying amounts among grape varieties, primarily in their skins and seeds, which, in muscadine grapes, have about one hundred times higher concentration than pulp. Fresh grape skin contains about 50 to 100 micrograms of resveratrol per gram.
- Anthocyanins and other phenolics
Anthocyanins tend to be the main polyphenolics in purple grapes whereas flavan-3-ols (i.e. catechins) are the more abundant phenolic in white varieties. Total phenolic content, a laboratory index of antioxidant strength, is higher in purple varieties due almost entirely to anthocyanin density in purple grape skin compared to absence of anthocyanins in white grape skin. It is these anthocyanins that are attracting the efforts of scientists to define their properties for human health.
Vitis vinifera red cultivars are rich in anthocyanins that impart their colour to the berries (generally in the skin). The 5 most basic anthocyanins found in grape are:
Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside
Delphinidin-3-O-glucoside
Malvidin-3-O-glucoside
Petunidin-3-O-glucoside
Peonidin-3-O-glucoside
Cultivars like Graciano may also contain:
acetylated anthocyanins
coumaroylated anthocyanins
caffeoylated anthocyanins
Red wine may offer health benefits more so than white because potentially beneficial compounds are present in grape skin, and only red wine is fermented with skins. The amount of fermentation time a wine spends in contact with grape skins is an important determinant of its resveratrol content. Ordinary non-muscadine red winecontains between 0.2 and 5.8 mg/L, depending on the grape variety, because it is fermented with the skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol. By contrast, a white wine contains lower phenolic contents because it is fermented after removal of skins.
Wines produced from muscadine grapes may contain more than 40 mg/L, an exceptional phenolic content. In muscadine skins, ellagic acid, myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol, and trans-resveratrol are major phenolics.Contrary to previous results, ellagic acid and not resveratrol is the major phenolic in muscadine grapes.
The flavonols syringetin, syringetin 3-O-galactoside, laricitrin and laricitrin 3-O-galactoside are also found in purple grape but absent in white grape.
Anthocyanins tend to be the main polyphenolics in purple grapes whereas flavan-3-ols (i.e. catechins) are the more abundant phenolic in white varieties. Total phenolic content, a laboratory index of antioxidant strength, is higher in purple varieties due almost entirely to anthocyanin density in purple grape skin compared to absence of anthocyanins in white grape skin. It is these anthocyanins that are attracting the efforts of scientists to define their properties for human health.
Vitis vinifera red cultivars are rich in anthocyanins that impart their colour to the berries (generally in the skin). The 5 most basic anthocyanins found in grape are:
Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside
Delphinidin-3-O-glucoside
Malvidin-3-O-glucoside
Petunidin-3-O-glucoside
Peonidin-3-O-glucoside
Cultivars like Graciano may also contain:
acetylated anthocyanins
coumaroylated anthocyanins
caffeoylated anthocyanins
Red wine may offer health benefits more so than white because potentially beneficial compounds are present in grape skin, and only red wine is fermented with skins. The amount of fermentation time a wine spends in contact with grape skins is an important determinant of its resveratrol content. Ordinary non-muscadine red winecontains between 0.2 and 5.8 mg/L, depending on the grape variety, because it is fermented with the skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol. By contrast, a white wine contains lower phenolic contents because it is fermented after removal of skins.
Wines produced from muscadine grapes may contain more than 40 mg/L, an exceptional phenolic content. In muscadine skins, ellagic acid, myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol, and trans-resveratrol are major phenolics.Contrary to previous results, ellagic acid and not resveratrol is the major phenolic in muscadine grapes.
The flavonols syringetin, syringetin 3-O-galactoside, laricitrin and laricitrin 3-O-galactoside are also found in purple grape but absent in white grape.
+ Other chemicals
Isoprenoid monoterpens are present in grape, above all acyclic linalool, geraniol, nerol, citronellol, homotrienol and monocyclic α-terpineol, mostly occurring as glycosides. Carotenoids accumulate in ripening grape berries. Oxidation of carotenoids produces volatile fragments, C13-norisoprenoids. These are strongly odoriferous compounds, such as β-ionone (aroma of viola), damascenone (aroma of exotic fruits), β-damascone (aroma of rose) and β-ionol (aroma of flowers and fruits). Tetrahydro-β-carbolines are indole alkaloids occurring in grape to a low amount and contributing to its antioxidant power. Melatonin, an alkaloid, has been identified in grape.
Isoprenoid monoterpens are present in grape, above all acyclic linalool, geraniol, nerol, citronellol, homotrienol and monocyclic α-terpineol, mostly occurring as glycosides. Carotenoids accumulate in ripening grape berries. Oxidation of carotenoids produces volatile fragments, C13-norisoprenoids. These are strongly odoriferous compounds, such as β-ionone (aroma of viola), damascenone (aroma of exotic fruits), β-damascone (aroma of rose) and β-ionol (aroma of flowers and fruits). Tetrahydro-β-carbolines are indole alkaloids occurring in grape to a low amount and contributing to its antioxidant power. Melatonin, an alkaloid, has been identified in grape.
2.4- Nutrition
+ Nutritional value of Grapes, red or green, raw and of Raisins, seedless
- Nutritional value of Grapes, red or green, raw
A grape is a fruiting berry of the deciduous woody vines of the botanical genus Vitis.
Grapes can be eaten fresh as table grapes or they can be used for making wine, jam, juice, jelly, grape seed extract, raisins, vinegar, and grape seed oil. Grapes are a non-climacteric type of fruit, generally occurring in clusters.
- Nutritional value of Raisins, seedless
Raisins can contain up to 72% sugars by weight, most of which is fructose and glucose. They also contain about 3% protein and 3.7% - 6.8% dietary fiber. Raisins, like prunes and apricots, are also high in certain antioxidants, but have a lowervitamin C content than fresh grapes. Raisins are low in sodium and contain no cholesterol.
Data presented at the American College of Cardiology's 61st Annual Scientific Session in 2012 suggest that, among individuals with mild increases in blood pressure, the routine consumption of raisins (three times a day) may significantly lower blood pressure, especially when compared to eating other common snacks.
+ Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) of Grapes, red or green, raw and of Raisins, seedless
+ Nutritional value of Grapes, red or green, raw and of Raisins, seedless
- Nutritional value of Grapes, red or green, raw
A grape is a fruiting berry of the deciduous woody vines of the botanical genus Vitis.
Grapes can be eaten fresh as table grapes or they can be used for making wine, jam, juice, jelly, grape seed extract, raisins, vinegar, and grape seed oil. Grapes are a non-climacteric type of fruit, generally occurring in clusters.
- Nutritional value of Raisins, seedless
Raisins can contain up to 72% sugars by weight, most of which is fructose and glucose. They also contain about 3% protein and 3.7% - 6.8% dietary fiber. Raisins, like prunes and apricots, are also high in certain antioxidants, but have a lowervitamin C content than fresh grapes. Raisins are low in sodium and contain no cholesterol.
Data presented at the American College of Cardiology's 61st Annual Scientific Session in 2012 suggest that, among individuals with mild increases in blood pressure, the routine consumption of raisins (three times a day) may significantly lower blood pressure, especially when compared to eating other common snacks.
+ Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) of Grapes, red or green, raw and of Raisins, seedless
|
Nutritional value of:
Energy Carbohydrates Sugars Dietary fiber Fat Protein Vitamins Thiamine (B1) Riboflavin (B2) Niacin (B3) Pantothenic acid (B5) Vitamin B6 Folate (B9) Choline Vitamin C Vitamin E Vitamin K Minerals Calcium Iron Magnesium Manganese Phosphorus Potassium Sodium Zinc Other constituents Fluoride |
Grapes, red or green, raw
288 kJ (69 kcal) 18.1 g 15.48 g 0.9 g 0.16 g 0.72 g : 0.069 mg (6%) 0.07 mg (6%) 0.188 mg (1%) 0.05 mg (1%) 0.086 mg (7%) 2 μg (1%) 5.6 mg (1%) 3.2 mg (4%) 0.19 mg (1%) 14.6 μg (14%) : 10 mg (1%) 0.36 mg (3%) 7 mg (2%) 0.071 mg (3%) 20 mg (3%) 191 mg (4%) 2 mg (0%) 0.07 mg (1%) : 7.8 µg |
Raisins, seedless
1,252 kJ (299 kcal) 79.18 g 59.19 g 3.7 g 0.46 g 3.07 g : 0.106 mg (9%) 0.125 mg (10%) 0.766 mg (5%) 0.095 mg (2%) 0.174 mg (13%) 5 μg (1%) 11.1 mg (2%) 2.3 mg (3%) 0.12 mg (1%) 3.5 μg (3%) : 50 mg (5%) 1.88 mg (14%) 32 mg (9%) 0.299 mg (14%) 101 mg (14%) 749 mg (16%) 11 mg (1%) 0.22 mg (2%) : 233.9 µg |
Note!
+ Units: μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams * IU = International units
+ Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database - Link to USDA Database entry
+ Units: μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams * IU = International units
+ Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database - Link to USDA Database entry
2.5- Health Benefits of Grapes
+ Introduction
The Health Benefits of Grapes include their ability to treat constipation, indigestion, fatigue, kidney disorders, macular degeneration and the prevention of cataracts. Grapes, one of the most popular and delicious fruits, are rich sources of vitamins A, C, B6 and folate in addition to essential minerals like potassium, calcium, iron, phosphorus, magnesium and selenium.
Grapes contain flavonoids that are very powerful antioxidants, which can reduce the damage caused by free radicals and slow down aging. Grapes, due to their high nutrient content, play an important role in ensuring a healthy and active life.
+ Introduction
The Health Benefits of Grapes include their ability to treat constipation, indigestion, fatigue, kidney disorders, macular degeneration and the prevention of cataracts. Grapes, one of the most popular and delicious fruits, are rich sources of vitamins A, C, B6 and folate in addition to essential minerals like potassium, calcium, iron, phosphorus, magnesium and selenium.
Grapes contain flavonoids that are very powerful antioxidants, which can reduce the damage caused by free radicals and slow down aging. Grapes, due to their high nutrient content, play an important role in ensuring a healthy and active life.
+ Health Benefits of Grapes
Some of the health benefits of grapes include the following:
1- Asthma: Due to their well-known therapeutic value, grapes can be used as a cure for asthma. In addition to that, the hydrating power of grapes is also high, which increases the moisture present in the lungs and reduces asthmatic events.
2- Bone Health: Grapes are a wonderful source of micro-nutrients like copper, iron, and manganese, all of which are important in the formation and strength of the bones. Adding grapes into your diet on a regular basis can prevent the onset of age-related conditions like osteoporosis. Manganese is an extremely important element in the body, which aids in everything from protein metabolism, collagen formation, and nervous system functioning.
3- Heart diseases: Grapes increase the nitric oxide levels in the blood, which prevents blood clots. Therefore, grapes are an effective way to reduce the chances of heart attacks. Additionally, the antioxidants present in grapes prevent the oxidation of LDL cholesterol, which blocks the blood vessels and is a main contributor to various coronary conditions. Grapes also have high numbers of flavonoids, which are what give grapes their color, but flavonoids are also very powerful antioxidants. The two main types in grapes are resveratrol andquercetin, and these two compounds negate the effects of free radicals that threaten the body and stimulate LDL cholesterol’s harmful effects on arteries. Also, these two antioxidant flavonoids act as a clean-up crew to reduce platelet clumping and filter toxins out of the blood.
4- Migraine: Ripe grape juice is an important home remedy for curing migraines. It should be drunk early in the morning, without mixing additional water. Ironically, drinking red wine is often considered a cause of migraines, but grape juice and grape seed extract is considered a solution for the problem. There are many causes behind migraines, and it can be difficult to pinpoint the culprit, since they include chemical imbalances, lack of sleep, changes in weather, or dietary deficiencies. Alcohol in general causes migraines, but grapes have so many antioxidants that they can cause and cure the same illness!
5- Constipation: Grapes are very effective in overcoming and eliminating constipation. They are classified as a laxative food, because they contain organic acid, sugar and cellulose. They also relieve chronic constipation by toning up intestinal muscles and the stomach. Grapes are high in insoluble fiber, meaning that it remains intact as it moves through the digestive tract. It builds up bulk, which promotes the formation and excretion of healthy stool, so grapes can help make you much more regular. However, if you suffer from loos stool ordiarrhea, grapes should not be used as a way to regulate your system. Insoluble fiber doesn’t soak up water to dry out loose stool, and grapes don’t have a high level of soluble fiber.
6- Indigestion: Grapes play an important role in dyspepsia. They relieve heat and cure indigestion and irritation in the stomach. They are also preferred over other digestive aids because they are considered a “light food”.
7- Fatigue: Light and white grape juice supplements the iron content in the body and prevents fatigue. Anemiais a real problem for many people, and eating grapes can help keep your iron and mineral levels balanced in the body. A lack of iron can make you sluggish, and your mind also doesn’t work as quickly, since iron is an essential mineral that impact a number of bodily functions. However, dark grape juice might not give an iron boost and may actually decrease iron levels. Drinking grape juice also provides a nearly instant energy boost.
8- Diabetes: Recent research suggests that grape skin extract (GSE) exerts a novel inhibitory activity on hyperglycemia and may help in diabetes management.
9- Dental Care: According to a recent study, red wine and grape seed extract can potentially help prevent cavities.
10- Kidney disorders: Grapes can substantially reduce the acidity of uric acid and they also help to eliminate acid from the system, there by reducing the stress and pressure on the kidneys. Since grapes have a high water content, they induce urination, which also helps to eliminate the uric acid still present in the body after its acidity is reduced. Grapes have a very cleansing effect on the body, and the antioxidants present benefit all of the body’s systems in peripheral ways.
Some of the health benefits of grapes include the following:
1- Asthma: Due to their well-known therapeutic value, grapes can be used as a cure for asthma. In addition to that, the hydrating power of grapes is also high, which increases the moisture present in the lungs and reduces asthmatic events.
2- Bone Health: Grapes are a wonderful source of micro-nutrients like copper, iron, and manganese, all of which are important in the formation and strength of the bones. Adding grapes into your diet on a regular basis can prevent the onset of age-related conditions like osteoporosis. Manganese is an extremely important element in the body, which aids in everything from protein metabolism, collagen formation, and nervous system functioning.
3- Heart diseases: Grapes increase the nitric oxide levels in the blood, which prevents blood clots. Therefore, grapes are an effective way to reduce the chances of heart attacks. Additionally, the antioxidants present in grapes prevent the oxidation of LDL cholesterol, which blocks the blood vessels and is a main contributor to various coronary conditions. Grapes also have high numbers of flavonoids, which are what give grapes their color, but flavonoids are also very powerful antioxidants. The two main types in grapes are resveratrol andquercetin, and these two compounds negate the effects of free radicals that threaten the body and stimulate LDL cholesterol’s harmful effects on arteries. Also, these two antioxidant flavonoids act as a clean-up crew to reduce platelet clumping and filter toxins out of the blood.
4- Migraine: Ripe grape juice is an important home remedy for curing migraines. It should be drunk early in the morning, without mixing additional water. Ironically, drinking red wine is often considered a cause of migraines, but grape juice and grape seed extract is considered a solution for the problem. There are many causes behind migraines, and it can be difficult to pinpoint the culprit, since they include chemical imbalances, lack of sleep, changes in weather, or dietary deficiencies. Alcohol in general causes migraines, but grapes have so many antioxidants that they can cause and cure the same illness!
5- Constipation: Grapes are very effective in overcoming and eliminating constipation. They are classified as a laxative food, because they contain organic acid, sugar and cellulose. They also relieve chronic constipation by toning up intestinal muscles and the stomach. Grapes are high in insoluble fiber, meaning that it remains intact as it moves through the digestive tract. It builds up bulk, which promotes the formation and excretion of healthy stool, so grapes can help make you much more regular. However, if you suffer from loos stool ordiarrhea, grapes should not be used as a way to regulate your system. Insoluble fiber doesn’t soak up water to dry out loose stool, and grapes don’t have a high level of soluble fiber.
6- Indigestion: Grapes play an important role in dyspepsia. They relieve heat and cure indigestion and irritation in the stomach. They are also preferred over other digestive aids because they are considered a “light food”.
7- Fatigue: Light and white grape juice supplements the iron content in the body and prevents fatigue. Anemiais a real problem for many people, and eating grapes can help keep your iron and mineral levels balanced in the body. A lack of iron can make you sluggish, and your mind also doesn’t work as quickly, since iron is an essential mineral that impact a number of bodily functions. However, dark grape juice might not give an iron boost and may actually decrease iron levels. Drinking grape juice also provides a nearly instant energy boost.
8- Diabetes: Recent research suggests that grape skin extract (GSE) exerts a novel inhibitory activity on hyperglycemia and may help in diabetes management.
9- Dental Care: According to a recent study, red wine and grape seed extract can potentially help prevent cavities.
10- Kidney disorders: Grapes can substantially reduce the acidity of uric acid and they also help to eliminate acid from the system, there by reducing the stress and pressure on the kidneys. Since grapes have a high water content, they induce urination, which also helps to eliminate the uric acid still present in the body after its acidity is reduced. Grapes have a very cleansing effect on the body, and the antioxidants present benefit all of the body’s systems in peripheral ways.
11- Blood cholesterol: Grapes contain a compound called pterostilbene, which has the capacity to lower a person’s cholesterol levels. Pterostilbene is closely related to resveratrol, the beneficial antioxidant and coloring flavonoid that is also found in grapes, and early research has shown that it has anti-cancer qualities as well as having a great impact on cholesterol levels. It is also thought to have preventative powers over cognitive decline. Furthermore, the saponins present in the skin of grapes can also prevent the absorption of cholesterol by binding with it.
12- Antibacterial activity: Red grapes have strong antibacterial and antiviral properties that can protect you from infections. They display strong antiviral properties against the polio virus and the herpes simplex virus. Studies have also shown that grape juice can tackle bacterial infections in the gut and other systems.
13- Breast cancer: In a recent study, it has been discovered that purple, Concord grape juice helps in preventing breast cancer. Significant reduction in mammary tumor mass of laboratory rats was seen after they were fed the grape juice in an experimental setting. The antioxidants in grapes are beneficial in the prevention of all types of cancer, but there are some fascinating studies which specifically show grape juice as an effective preventive measure against breast cancer. Certain chemicals in grapes compete for binding sites, and inhibits aromatase from changing androgen to estrogen, which is thought to be a big contributing factor to breast cancer growth in women.
14- Alzheimer’s disease: Resveratrol, a beneficial polyphenol present in grapes, reduces the levels of amyloidal-beta peptides in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. Studies suggest that grapes can enhance brain health and delay the onset of degenerative neural diseases. A study published in the British Journal of Nutrition claims that grape juice can even improve the brain function of older people who have already displayed mild cognitive impairment. Further studies are currently under way to determine the exact interaction between grape components and neural systems.
15- Macular degeneration: Grapes can prevent age-related loss of vision and macular degeneration. Research study conducted at University of Miami suggests that grape-enriched diet supportseye health and may prevent vision-threatening retinal diseases.
Studies have shown that three servings of grapes a day can reduce the risks of macular degeneration by over 36 %. Both grapes and wine can both contribute to a reduced loss of vision over time, and as with all of the organ systems, the health and susceptibility to disease or damage is lessened by the antioxidants packed into every grape!
16- Immune System: Grapes are not only packed with flavonoids and minerals, but vitamins as well! The high levels of Vitamin C, K, and A in grapes gives you a healthy boost to many of your organ systems, particularly your immune system, which means less chance of coming down with common colds, as well as more serious health issues.
17- Prevention of cataracts: Flavonoids present in grapes have antioxidants, which can reduce and fight the damage caused by free radicals. Free radicals cause things like the development of cataracts, as well as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and various age-related problems. This is somewhat linked to macular degeneration, as they usually occur around the same time in life. Fortunately, antioxidants also have certain anti-aging qualities, which not only help you look younger, but also feel younger by staving off age-related conditions like cataracts.
18- Cancer prevention properties: Grapes have been found to have strong anti-cancer properties due to the anti-inflammatory effect of resveratrol. It is particularly effective in reducing the chances of colorectal cancer and breast cancer. The anthocyanins and pro-anthocyanidins in grapes have properties of an anti-proliferate and can inhibit the growth of cancer causing agents. Grape juice not only prevents the risk of cancer but also suppresses the growth and propagation of cancer cells. The pigments contained in grapes enhance the overall immunity of the body to a wide range of diseases.
In conclusion, grapes play a pivotal role in preventing a multitude of health disorders and can be used as a home-based remedy for several ailments. Dried grapes, known as raisins, are also extremely nutritious and can help treat many disorders, including constipation, acidosis, anemia, fever, and sexual dysfunction. Raisins can also help people gain weight quickly and protect the health and functional integrity of their eyes.
Read more about benefits of raisins.
Source: Health Benefits of Grapes
https://www.organicfacts.net/health-benefits/fruit/health-benefits-of-grapes.html
12- Antibacterial activity: Red grapes have strong antibacterial and antiviral properties that can protect you from infections. They display strong antiviral properties against the polio virus and the herpes simplex virus. Studies have also shown that grape juice can tackle bacterial infections in the gut and other systems.
13- Breast cancer: In a recent study, it has been discovered that purple, Concord grape juice helps in preventing breast cancer. Significant reduction in mammary tumor mass of laboratory rats was seen after they were fed the grape juice in an experimental setting. The antioxidants in grapes are beneficial in the prevention of all types of cancer, but there are some fascinating studies which specifically show grape juice as an effective preventive measure against breast cancer. Certain chemicals in grapes compete for binding sites, and inhibits aromatase from changing androgen to estrogen, which is thought to be a big contributing factor to breast cancer growth in women.
14- Alzheimer’s disease: Resveratrol, a beneficial polyphenol present in grapes, reduces the levels of amyloidal-beta peptides in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. Studies suggest that grapes can enhance brain health and delay the onset of degenerative neural diseases. A study published in the British Journal of Nutrition claims that grape juice can even improve the brain function of older people who have already displayed mild cognitive impairment. Further studies are currently under way to determine the exact interaction between grape components and neural systems.
15- Macular degeneration: Grapes can prevent age-related loss of vision and macular degeneration. Research study conducted at University of Miami suggests that grape-enriched diet supportseye health and may prevent vision-threatening retinal diseases.
Studies have shown that three servings of grapes a day can reduce the risks of macular degeneration by over 36 %. Both grapes and wine can both contribute to a reduced loss of vision over time, and as with all of the organ systems, the health and susceptibility to disease or damage is lessened by the antioxidants packed into every grape!
16- Immune System: Grapes are not only packed with flavonoids and minerals, but vitamins as well! The high levels of Vitamin C, K, and A in grapes gives you a healthy boost to many of your organ systems, particularly your immune system, which means less chance of coming down with common colds, as well as more serious health issues.
17- Prevention of cataracts: Flavonoids present in grapes have antioxidants, which can reduce and fight the damage caused by free radicals. Free radicals cause things like the development of cataracts, as well as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and various age-related problems. This is somewhat linked to macular degeneration, as they usually occur around the same time in life. Fortunately, antioxidants also have certain anti-aging qualities, which not only help you look younger, but also feel younger by staving off age-related conditions like cataracts.
18- Cancer prevention properties: Grapes have been found to have strong anti-cancer properties due to the anti-inflammatory effect of resveratrol. It is particularly effective in reducing the chances of colorectal cancer and breast cancer. The anthocyanins and pro-anthocyanidins in grapes have properties of an anti-proliferate and can inhibit the growth of cancer causing agents. Grape juice not only prevents the risk of cancer but also suppresses the growth and propagation of cancer cells. The pigments contained in grapes enhance the overall immunity of the body to a wide range of diseases.
In conclusion, grapes play a pivotal role in preventing a multitude of health disorders and can be used as a home-based remedy for several ailments. Dried grapes, known as raisins, are also extremely nutritious and can help treat many disorders, including constipation, acidosis, anemia, fever, and sexual dysfunction. Raisins can also help people gain weight quickly and protect the health and functional integrity of their eyes.
Read more about benefits of raisins.
Source: Health Benefits of Grapes
https://www.organicfacts.net/health-benefits/fruit/health-benefits-of-grapes.html
3- The Uses of Grape vines
3.1- Food Uses
+ History of Uses
Use of grapes is known to date back to Neolithic times, following the discovery in 1996 of 7,000-year-old wine storage jars in present-day northern Iran. Further evidence shows the Mesopotamians and Ancient Egyptians had vine plantations and winemaking skills. Greek philosophers praised the healing powers of grapes both whole and in the form of wine. Vitis vinifera cultivation and winemaking in China began during the Han Dynasty in the 2nd century with the importation of the species from Ta-Yuan. However, wild vine "mountain grapes" like Vitis thunbergii were being used for wine making before that time.
Seedless grape variety were developed to appeal to consumers, but researchers are now discovering that many of the healthful properties of grapes may actually come from the seeds themselves, thanks to their enriched phytochemical content.
Grapevine leaves are filled with minced meat (such as lamb, pork or beef), rice and onions in the making of Balkan traditional dolma.
A grapevine is depicted on the reverse of the Croatian 2 lipa coin, minted since 1993.
+ History of Uses
Use of grapes is known to date back to Neolithic times, following the discovery in 1996 of 7,000-year-old wine storage jars in present-day northern Iran. Further evidence shows the Mesopotamians and Ancient Egyptians had vine plantations and winemaking skills. Greek philosophers praised the healing powers of grapes both whole and in the form of wine. Vitis vinifera cultivation and winemaking in China began during the Han Dynasty in the 2nd century with the importation of the species from Ta-Yuan. However, wild vine "mountain grapes" like Vitis thunbergii were being used for wine making before that time.
Seedless grape variety were developed to appeal to consumers, but researchers are now discovering that many of the healthful properties of grapes may actually come from the seeds themselves, thanks to their enriched phytochemical content.
Grapevine leaves are filled with minced meat (such as lamb, pork or beef), rice and onions in the making of Balkan traditional dolma.
A grapevine is depicted on the reverse of the Croatian 2 lipa coin, minted since 1993.
+ Table and wine grapes
Commercially cultivated grapes can usually be classified as either table or wine grapes, based on their intended method of consumption: eaten raw (table grapes) or used to make wine (wine grapes). While almost all of them belong to the same species, Vitis vinifera, table and wine grapes have significant differences, brought about through selective breeding. Table grape cultivars tend to have large, seedless fruit with relatively thin skin. Wine grapes are smaller, usually seeded, and have relatively thick skins (a desirable characteristic in winemaking, since much of the aroma in wine comes from the skin). Wine grapes also tend to be very sweet: they are harvested at the time when their juice is approximately 24% sugar by weight. By comparison, commercially produced "100% grape juice", made from table grapes, is usually around 15% sugar by weight.
Commercially cultivated grapes can usually be classified as either table or wine grapes, based on their intended method of consumption: eaten raw (table grapes) or used to make wine (wine grapes). While almost all of them belong to the same species, Vitis vinifera, table and wine grapes have significant differences, brought about through selective breeding. Table grape cultivars tend to have large, seedless fruit with relatively thin skin. Wine grapes are smaller, usually seeded, and have relatively thick skins (a desirable characteristic in winemaking, since much of the aroma in wine comes from the skin). Wine grapes also tend to be very sweet: they are harvested at the time when their juice is approximately 24% sugar by weight. By comparison, commercially produced "100% grape juice", made from table grapes, is usually around 15% sugar by weight.
+ Raisins, currants and sultanas
In most of Europe and North America, dried grapes are referred to as "raisins" or the local equivalent. In the UK, three different varieties are recognized, forcing the EU to use the term "dried vine fruit" in official documents.
A raisin is any dried grape. While raisin is a French loanword, the word in French refers to the fresh fruit; grappe (from which the English grape is derived) refers to the bunch (as in une grappe de raisins).
A currant is a dried Zante Black Corinth grape, the name being a corruption of the French raisin de Corinthe (Corinth grape).Currant has also come to refer to the blackcurrant and redcurrant, two berries unrelated to grapes.
A sultana was originally a raisin made from Sultana grapes of Turkish origin (known as Thompson Seedless in the United States), but the word is now applied to raisins made from either white grapes or red grapes that are bleached to resemble the traditional sultana.
See also: Raisin, Currant and Sultana
In most of Europe and North America, dried grapes are referred to as "raisins" or the local equivalent. In the UK, three different varieties are recognized, forcing the EU to use the term "dried vine fruit" in official documents.
A raisin is any dried grape. While raisin is a French loanword, the word in French refers to the fresh fruit; grappe (from which the English grape is derived) refers to the bunch (as in une grappe de raisins).
A currant is a dried Zante Black Corinth grape, the name being a corruption of the French raisin de Corinthe (Corinth grape).Currant has also come to refer to the blackcurrant and redcurrant, two berries unrelated to grapes.
A sultana was originally a raisin made from Sultana grapes of Turkish origin (known as Thompson Seedless in the United States), but the word is now applied to raisins made from either white grapes or red grapes that are bleached to resemble the traditional sultana.
See also: Raisin, Currant and Sultana
+ Grape Juice
Grape juice is obtained from crushing and blending grapes into a liquid. The juice is often sold in stores or fermented and made intowine, brandy, or vinegar. Grape juice that has been pasteurized, removing any naturally occurring yeast, will not ferment if kept sterile, and thus contains no alcohol. In the wine industry, grape juice that contains 7-23% of pulp, skins, stems and seeds is often referred to as "must". In North America, the most common grape juice is purple and made from Concord grapes, while white grape juice is commonly made from Niagara grapes, both of which are varieties of native American grapes, a different species from European wine grapes. In California, Sultana (known there as Thompson Seedless) grapes are sometimes diverted from the raisin or table market to produce white juice.
Grape juice is obtained from crushing and blending grapes into a liquid. The juice is often sold in stores or fermented and made intowine, brandy, or vinegar. Grape juice that has been pasteurized, removing any naturally occurring yeast, will not ferment if kept sterile, and thus contains no alcohol. In the wine industry, grape juice that contains 7-23% of pulp, skins, stems and seeds is often referred to as "must". In North America, the most common grape juice is purple and made from Concord grapes, while white grape juice is commonly made from Niagara grapes, both of which are varieties of native American grapes, a different species from European wine grapes. In California, Sultana (known there as Thompson Seedless) grapes are sometimes diverted from the raisin or table market to produce white juice.
+ Grape Wine
Wine (from Latin vinum) is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grapes, generally Vitis vinifera or its hybrids with Vitis labrusca or Vitis rupestris. Grapes ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, water, or other nutrients, as yeast consumes the sugar in the grapes and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide. Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts produce different styles of wine. These variations result from the complex interactions between the biochemical development of the grape, the reactions involved in fermentation, the terroir (the special characteristics imparted by geography, geology, climate, viticultural methods and plant genetics), and the production process. Many countries define legal appellations intended to define styles and qualities of wine; these typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production.
Wine (from Latin vinum) is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grapes, generally Vitis vinifera or its hybrids with Vitis labrusca or Vitis rupestris. Grapes ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, water, or other nutrients, as yeast consumes the sugar in the grapes and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide. Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts produce different styles of wine. These variations result from the complex interactions between the biochemical development of the grape, the reactions involved in fermentation, the terroir (the special characteristics imparted by geography, geology, climate, viticultural methods and plant genetics), and the production process. Many countries define legal appellations intended to define styles and qualities of wine; these typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production.
3.2- Medicinal Uses
+ Traditional medicines
In traditional medicine of India Vitis vinifera is used in prescriptions for cough, respiratory tract catarrh, subacute cases of enlarged liver and spleen, as well as in alcohol-based tonics (Aasavs).
Using the sap of grapevines, European folk healers sought to cure skin and eye diseases. Other historical uses include the leaves being used to stop bleeding, pain and inflammation of hemorrhoids. Unripe grapes were used for treating sore throats, and raisins were given as treatments for consumption (tuberculosis), constipation and thirst. Ripe grapes were used for the treatment of cancer, cholera, smallpox,nausea, skin and eye infections as well as kidney and liver diseases.
+ Grape therapy
Grape therapy, also known as ampelotherapy (from Ancient Greek ἄμπελος (ampelos), meaning "vine"), is a form of naturopathic medicine or alternative medicine that involves heavy consumption of grapes, including seeds, and parts of the vine, including leaves. Although there is some limited evidence of positive benefits from the consumption of grapes for health purposes, extreme claims, such as its ability to cure cancer, have been widely derided as “quackery”.
See also: Grape therapy
+ Traditional medicines
In traditional medicine of India Vitis vinifera is used in prescriptions for cough, respiratory tract catarrh, subacute cases of enlarged liver and spleen, as well as in alcohol-based tonics (Aasavs).
Using the sap of grapevines, European folk healers sought to cure skin and eye diseases. Other historical uses include the leaves being used to stop bleeding, pain and inflammation of hemorrhoids. Unripe grapes were used for treating sore throats, and raisins were given as treatments for consumption (tuberculosis), constipation and thirst. Ripe grapes were used for the treatment of cancer, cholera, smallpox,nausea, skin and eye infections as well as kidney and liver diseases.
+ Grape therapy
Grape therapy, also known as ampelotherapy (from Ancient Greek ἄμπελος (ampelos), meaning "vine"), is a form of naturopathic medicine or alternative medicine that involves heavy consumption of grapes, including seeds, and parts of the vine, including leaves. Although there is some limited evidence of positive benefits from the consumption of grapes for health purposes, extreme claims, such as its ability to cure cancer, have been widely derided as “quackery”.
See also: Grape therapy
+ French paradox
Comparing diets among Western countries, researchers have discovered that although the French tend to eat higher levels of animal fat, the incidence of heart disease remains low in France. This phenomenon has been termed the French paradox, and is thought to occur from protective benefits of regularly consuming red wine. Apart from potential benefits of alcohol itself, including reduced platelet aggregation and vasodilation, polyphenols (e.g., resveratrol) mainly in the grape skin provide other suspected health benefits, such as:
- Alteration of molecular mechanisms in blood vessels, reducing susceptibility to vascular damage
- Decreased activity of angiotensin, a systemic hormone causing blood vessel constriction that would elevate blood pressure
- Increased production of the vasodilator hormone, nitric oxide (endothelium-derived relaxing factor)
Although adoption of wine consumption is not recommended by some health authorities, a significant volume of research indicates moderate consumption, such as one glass of red wine a day for women and two for men, may confer health benefits. Emerging evidence is that wine polyphenols such as resveratrol provide physiological benefit, whereas alcohol itself may have protective effects on the cardiovascular system. More may be seen in the article Long-term effects of alcohol.
See also: French paradox
Comparing diets among Western countries, researchers have discovered that although the French tend to eat higher levels of animal fat, the incidence of heart disease remains low in France. This phenomenon has been termed the French paradox, and is thought to occur from protective benefits of regularly consuming red wine. Apart from potential benefits of alcohol itself, including reduced platelet aggregation and vasodilation, polyphenols (e.g., resveratrol) mainly in the grape skin provide other suspected health benefits, such as:
- Alteration of molecular mechanisms in blood vessels, reducing susceptibility to vascular damage
- Decreased activity of angiotensin, a systemic hormone causing blood vessel constriction that would elevate blood pressure
- Increased production of the vasodilator hormone, nitric oxide (endothelium-derived relaxing factor)
Although adoption of wine consumption is not recommended by some health authorities, a significant volume of research indicates moderate consumption, such as one glass of red wine a day for women and two for men, may confer health benefits. Emerging evidence is that wine polyphenols such as resveratrol provide physiological benefit, whereas alcohol itself may have protective effects on the cardiovascular system. More may be seen in the article Long-term effects of alcohol.
See also: French paradox
3.3- Uses in religion
Christians have traditionally used wine during worship services as a means of remembering the blood of Jesus Christ which was shed for the remission of sins. Christians who oppose the partaking of alcoholic beverages sometimes use grape juice or water as the "cup" or "wine" in the Lord's Supper.
The Catholic Church continues to use wine in the celebration of the Eucharist because it is part of the tradition passed down through the ages starting with Jesus Christ at the Last Supper, where Catholics believe the consecrated bread and wine literally become the body and blood of Jesus Christ, a dogma known as transubstantiation. Wine is used (not grape juice) both due to its strong Scriptural roots, and also to follow the tradition set by the early Christian Church. The Code of Canon Law of the Catholic Church (1983), Canon 924 says that the wine used must be natural, made from grapes of the vine, and not corrupt. In some circumstances, a priest may obtain special permission to use grape juice for the consecration; however, this is extremely rare and typically requires sufficient impetus to warrant such a dispensation, such as personal health of the priest.
Although alcohol is permitted in Judaism, grape juice is sometimes used as an alternative for kiddush on Shabbat and Jewish holidays, and has the same blessing as wine. Many authorities maintain that grape juice must be capable of turning into wine naturally in order to be used for kiddush. Common practice, however, is to use any kosher grape juice for kiddush.
See also: Christian views on alcohol
Christians have traditionally used wine during worship services as a means of remembering the blood of Jesus Christ which was shed for the remission of sins. Christians who oppose the partaking of alcoholic beverages sometimes use grape juice or water as the "cup" or "wine" in the Lord's Supper.
The Catholic Church continues to use wine in the celebration of the Eucharist because it is part of the tradition passed down through the ages starting with Jesus Christ at the Last Supper, where Catholics believe the consecrated bread and wine literally become the body and blood of Jesus Christ, a dogma known as transubstantiation. Wine is used (not grape juice) both due to its strong Scriptural roots, and also to follow the tradition set by the early Christian Church. The Code of Canon Law of the Catholic Church (1983), Canon 924 says that the wine used must be natural, made from grapes of the vine, and not corrupt. In some circumstances, a priest may obtain special permission to use grape juice for the consecration; however, this is extremely rare and typically requires sufficient impetus to warrant such a dispensation, such as personal health of the priest.
Although alcohol is permitted in Judaism, grape juice is sometimes used as an alternative for kiddush on Shabbat and Jewish holidays, and has the same blessing as wine. Many authorities maintain that grape juice must be capable of turning into wine naturally in order to be used for kiddush. Common practice, however, is to use any kosher grape juice for kiddush.
See also: Christian views on alcohol
3.4- Other Uses
+ Seed constituents
Biochemical and preliminary clinical studies have demonstrated potential biological properties of grape seed oligomeric procyanidins. For example, laboratory tests indicated a potential anticancer effect from grape seed extract. According to the American Cancer Society, "there is very little reliable scientific evidence available at this time that drinking red wine, eating grapes, or following the grape diet can prevent or treat cancer in people".
Grape seed oil from crushed seeds is used in cosmeceuticals and skincare products for perceived health benefits. Grape seed oil contains tocopherols (vitamin E) and high contents of phytosterols and polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acid, oleic acid, and alpha-linolenic acid.
See also: Grape seed extract and Grape seed oil
+ Seed constituents
Biochemical and preliminary clinical studies have demonstrated potential biological properties of grape seed oligomeric procyanidins. For example, laboratory tests indicated a potential anticancer effect from grape seed extract. According to the American Cancer Society, "there is very little reliable scientific evidence available at this time that drinking red wine, eating grapes, or following the grape diet can prevent or treat cancer in people".
Grape seed oil from crushed seeds is used in cosmeceuticals and skincare products for perceived health benefits. Grape seed oil contains tocopherols (vitamin E) and high contents of phytosterols and polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acid, oleic acid, and alpha-linolenic acid.
See also: Grape seed extract and Grape seed oil
4- Growing Grape vines
4.1- History of Cultivation
Humans are known to have interacted with the Vitis vinifera in the Neolithic period.
Wild grapes were harvested by foragers and early farmers. For thousands of years, the fruit has been harvested for both medicinal and nutritional value; its history is intimately entwined with the history of wine.
The old world grapes, found in Europe and the near East, are botanically known as 'vitis vinifera'. This species has more than 10,000 varieties.
Cultivation of the domesticated grape spread to other parts of the Old World in pre-historic or early historic times.
The superior old world species is native to the area across the southeast coast of the Black Sea (near the south of the Caspian Sea) to Afghanistan and is still found in these regions.
Changes in pip shape (narrower in domesticated forms) and distribution point to domestication occurring about 3500-3000 BC, in southwest Asia, South Caucasus (Armenia and Georgia), or the Western Black Sea shore region (Romania and Bulgaria).
The earliest evidence of domesticated grapes has been found at Gadachrili Gora, near the village of Imiri, Marneuli Municipality, in southeastern Republic of Georgia; carbon-dating points to the date of about 6000 BC.
Grape pips dating back to the V-IVth millennia B.C. were also found in Shulaveri; others dating back to the IVth millennium B.C. were also found in Khizanaant Gora, all in the Republic of Georgia.
The first written accounts of grapes and wine can be found in the Epic of Gilgamesh, an ancient Sumerian text from the third millennium BC. There are also numerous hieroglyphic references from ancient Egypt, according to which wine was reserved exclusively for priests, state functionaries and the pharaoh.
The ancient Greeks introduced grape growing and wine making to Europe in the Minoan age. Hesiod in his Works and Days gives detailed descriptions of grape harvests and wine making techniques, and there are also many references in Homer. Greek colonists then introduced these practices in their colonies, especially in southern Italy (Magna Grecia), which was even known as Enotria due to its propitious climate.
The Etruscans improved wine making techniques and developed an export trade even beyond the Mediterranean basin.
The ancient Romans further developed the techniques learnt from the Etruscans, as shown by numerous works of literature containing information that is still valid today: De Agri Cultura (around 160 BC) by Cato the Elder, De re rustica by Marcus Terentius Varro, the Georgics by Virgil and De re rustica by Columella.
During the 3rd and 4th centuries AD, the long crisis of the Roman Empire generated instability in the countryside which led to a reduction of viticulture in general, which was mainly sustained only close to towns and cities and along coastlines.
Between the 5th and 10th centuries, viticulture was sustained almost exclusively by the different religious orders in monasteries. The Benedictines and others extended the grape growing limit northwards and also planted new vineyards at higher altitudes than was customary before. Apart from ‘ecclesiastical’ viticulture, there also developed, especially in France, a ‘noble’ viticulture, practiced by the aristocracy as a symbol of prestige.
Grape growing was a significant economic activity in the Middle east up to the 7th century, when the expansion of Islam caused it to decline.
Between the Low Middle Ages and the Renaissance, viticulture began to flourish again. Demographic pressure, population concentration in towns and cities, and the increased spending power of artisans and merchants gave rise to increased investment in viticulture, which became economically feasible once more.
Much was written during the Renaissance on grape growing and wine production, favouring a more scientific approach. This literature can be considered the origin of modern ampelography.
The Phoenicians took grapevines from Asia to Greece around 1000 BCE. The Mediterranean climate suited grapes, so it started spreading throughout the Mediterranean region. The European grapes were brought to America by the Spanish and the Portuguese. In 1655, the Dutch took grapes along with them to Cape of Good Hope, where the 'vitis capensis' soon became a native species. Gradually, grapes became a popular crop in Australia and South America too. Despite its popularity across the globe, the 'Vitis vinifera' suddenly disappeared from Europe around the 1860s.
Grapes followed European colonies around the world, coming to North America around the 17th century, and to Africa, South America and Australia.
In 1700, the Spanish introduced grape cultivation to California. Since then many different species have been cultivated there. As a result, California produces nearly 90% of total crop in America. Grapes also show a significant existence in the eastern parts of Canada and in British Columbia. In the 19th century, the Victorians were very excited about grapes. They experimented on different species in hothouses. At the same time, the grape spa or 'uvarium' was introduced in France. These were best used for slimming and medicinal purposes.
South America and North Eastern America are the places of origin for other species known as the New World species. Its botanical name is 'vitis rotundifolia'.
The fox grapes, botanically named as 'vitis labrusca', were found by the Vikings who explored the eastern seaside of Northern America long before Columbus. Another species is muscadine grapes, found in the southeastern region of North America because of which, this region was named as the New World "Vinland".
After British colonization in America, grape cultivation got a real boost. But in the freezing winters of the North America, the vitis vinifera cuttings could not survive. So, the indigenous species were improved upon and cultivated again. This resulted in a new and more popular version called Concord grapes.
In North America it formed hybrids with native species from the Vitis genus; some of these were intentional hybrids created to combat phylloxera, an insect pest which affected the European grapevine to a much greater extent than North American ones and in fact managed to devastate European wine production in a matter of years. Later, North American rootstocks became widely used to graft Vitis vinifera cultivars so as to withstand the presence of phylloxera.
Vitis vinifera accounts for the majority of world wine production; all of the most familiar grape varieties used for wine production belong to Vitis vinifera.
In the second half of the 20th century there was a shift in attitude in viticulture from traditional techniques to the scientific method based on fields such as microbiology, chemistry and ampelography. This change came about also due to changes in economic and cultural aspects and in the way of life and in the consumption habits of wide sectors of the population starting to demand quality products.
Nature magazine published the genome sequence of Vitis vinifera. This work was a collaboration between Italian researchers (Consorzio Interuniversitario Nazionale per la Biologia Molecolare delle Piante, Istituto di Genomica Applicata) and French researchers (Genoscope and Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique). Vitis vinifera is the fourth angiosperm species whose genome has been completely sequenced. The results of this analysis contribute significantly to understanding the evolution of plants over time and of the genes involved in the aromatic characteristics of wine.
In March 2007, scientists from Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), working in the Cooperative Research Centre for Viticulture, reported that their "research suggests that extremely rare and independent mutations in two genes [VvMYBA1 and VvMYBA2 of red grapes] produced a single white grapevine that was the parent of almost all of the world's white grape varieties. If only one gene had been mutated, most grapes would still be red and we would not have the more than 3000 white grape cultivars available today."
Currently days in Europe, Vitis vinifera is concentrated in the central and southern regions; in Asia, in the western regions such as Anatolia, the Caucasus, the Middle east, and in China; in Africa, along the northern Mediterranean coast and in South Africa; in North America, in California and also other areas like Michigan, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Washington State, British Columbia, Ontario and Québec; in South America in Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Peru and Brazil; and in Oceania in Australia and New Zealand.
Humans are known to have interacted with the Vitis vinifera in the Neolithic period.
Wild grapes were harvested by foragers and early farmers. For thousands of years, the fruit has been harvested for both medicinal and nutritional value; its history is intimately entwined with the history of wine.
The old world grapes, found in Europe and the near East, are botanically known as 'vitis vinifera'. This species has more than 10,000 varieties.
Cultivation of the domesticated grape spread to other parts of the Old World in pre-historic or early historic times.
The superior old world species is native to the area across the southeast coast of the Black Sea (near the south of the Caspian Sea) to Afghanistan and is still found in these regions.
Changes in pip shape (narrower in domesticated forms) and distribution point to domestication occurring about 3500-3000 BC, in southwest Asia, South Caucasus (Armenia and Georgia), or the Western Black Sea shore region (Romania and Bulgaria).
The earliest evidence of domesticated grapes has been found at Gadachrili Gora, near the village of Imiri, Marneuli Municipality, in southeastern Republic of Georgia; carbon-dating points to the date of about 6000 BC.
Grape pips dating back to the V-IVth millennia B.C. were also found in Shulaveri; others dating back to the IVth millennium B.C. were also found in Khizanaant Gora, all in the Republic of Georgia.
The first written accounts of grapes and wine can be found in the Epic of Gilgamesh, an ancient Sumerian text from the third millennium BC. There are also numerous hieroglyphic references from ancient Egypt, according to which wine was reserved exclusively for priests, state functionaries and the pharaoh.
The ancient Greeks introduced grape growing and wine making to Europe in the Minoan age. Hesiod in his Works and Days gives detailed descriptions of grape harvests and wine making techniques, and there are also many references in Homer. Greek colonists then introduced these practices in their colonies, especially in southern Italy (Magna Grecia), which was even known as Enotria due to its propitious climate.
The Etruscans improved wine making techniques and developed an export trade even beyond the Mediterranean basin.
The ancient Romans further developed the techniques learnt from the Etruscans, as shown by numerous works of literature containing information that is still valid today: De Agri Cultura (around 160 BC) by Cato the Elder, De re rustica by Marcus Terentius Varro, the Georgics by Virgil and De re rustica by Columella.
During the 3rd and 4th centuries AD, the long crisis of the Roman Empire generated instability in the countryside which led to a reduction of viticulture in general, which was mainly sustained only close to towns and cities and along coastlines.
Between the 5th and 10th centuries, viticulture was sustained almost exclusively by the different religious orders in monasteries. The Benedictines and others extended the grape growing limit northwards and also planted new vineyards at higher altitudes than was customary before. Apart from ‘ecclesiastical’ viticulture, there also developed, especially in France, a ‘noble’ viticulture, practiced by the aristocracy as a symbol of prestige.
Grape growing was a significant economic activity in the Middle east up to the 7th century, when the expansion of Islam caused it to decline.
Between the Low Middle Ages and the Renaissance, viticulture began to flourish again. Demographic pressure, population concentration in towns and cities, and the increased spending power of artisans and merchants gave rise to increased investment in viticulture, which became economically feasible once more.
Much was written during the Renaissance on grape growing and wine production, favouring a more scientific approach. This literature can be considered the origin of modern ampelography.
The Phoenicians took grapevines from Asia to Greece around 1000 BCE. The Mediterranean climate suited grapes, so it started spreading throughout the Mediterranean region. The European grapes were brought to America by the Spanish and the Portuguese. In 1655, the Dutch took grapes along with them to Cape of Good Hope, where the 'vitis capensis' soon became a native species. Gradually, grapes became a popular crop in Australia and South America too. Despite its popularity across the globe, the 'Vitis vinifera' suddenly disappeared from Europe around the 1860s.
Grapes followed European colonies around the world, coming to North America around the 17th century, and to Africa, South America and Australia.
In 1700, the Spanish introduced grape cultivation to California. Since then many different species have been cultivated there. As a result, California produces nearly 90% of total crop in America. Grapes also show a significant existence in the eastern parts of Canada and in British Columbia. In the 19th century, the Victorians were very excited about grapes. They experimented on different species in hothouses. At the same time, the grape spa or 'uvarium' was introduced in France. These were best used for slimming and medicinal purposes.
South America and North Eastern America are the places of origin for other species known as the New World species. Its botanical name is 'vitis rotundifolia'.
The fox grapes, botanically named as 'vitis labrusca', were found by the Vikings who explored the eastern seaside of Northern America long before Columbus. Another species is muscadine grapes, found in the southeastern region of North America because of which, this region was named as the New World "Vinland".
After British colonization in America, grape cultivation got a real boost. But in the freezing winters of the North America, the vitis vinifera cuttings could not survive. So, the indigenous species were improved upon and cultivated again. This resulted in a new and more popular version called Concord grapes.
In North America it formed hybrids with native species from the Vitis genus; some of these were intentional hybrids created to combat phylloxera, an insect pest which affected the European grapevine to a much greater extent than North American ones and in fact managed to devastate European wine production in a matter of years. Later, North American rootstocks became widely used to graft Vitis vinifera cultivars so as to withstand the presence of phylloxera.
Vitis vinifera accounts for the majority of world wine production; all of the most familiar grape varieties used for wine production belong to Vitis vinifera.
In the second half of the 20th century there was a shift in attitude in viticulture from traditional techniques to the scientific method based on fields such as microbiology, chemistry and ampelography. This change came about also due to changes in economic and cultural aspects and in the way of life and in the consumption habits of wide sectors of the population starting to demand quality products.
Nature magazine published the genome sequence of Vitis vinifera. This work was a collaboration between Italian researchers (Consorzio Interuniversitario Nazionale per la Biologia Molecolare delle Piante, Istituto di Genomica Applicata) and French researchers (Genoscope and Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique). Vitis vinifera is the fourth angiosperm species whose genome has been completely sequenced. The results of this analysis contribute significantly to understanding the evolution of plants over time and of the genes involved in the aromatic characteristics of wine.
In March 2007, scientists from Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), working in the Cooperative Research Centre for Viticulture, reported that their "research suggests that extremely rare and independent mutations in two genes [VvMYBA1 and VvMYBA2 of red grapes] produced a single white grapevine that was the parent of almost all of the world's white grape varieties. If only one gene had been mutated, most grapes would still be red and we would not have the more than 3000 white grape cultivars available today."
Currently days in Europe, Vitis vinifera is concentrated in the central and southern regions; in Asia, in the western regions such as Anatolia, the Caucasus, the Middle east, and in China; in Africa, along the northern Mediterranean coast and in South Africa; in North America, in California and also other areas like Michigan, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Washington State, British Columbia, Ontario and Québec; in South America in Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Peru and Brazil; and in Oceania in Australia and New Zealand.
4.2- Varieties
+ General
There are currently between 5,000 and 10,000 varieties of Vitis vinifera grapes though only a few are of commercial significance for wine and table grape production.
There are more than a thousand varieties out of which, only around 50 have the commercial significance. Some of them are Alicante, Barsana, Alphonse Lavallee, Calmeria, Cardinal, Catawba, Chasselas/Golden Chasselas, Concord, Delaware, Emperor, Hanepoot (Honeypot), Italia, Kishmish, Malaga, Niagara, Ribier, and many more.
+ Seedless grapes
Seedless cultivars now make up the overwhelming majority of table grape plantings. Because grapevines are vegetatively propagated by cuttings, the lack of seeds does not present a problem for reproduction. It is an issue for breeders, who must either use a seeded variety as the female parent or rescue embryos early in development using tissue culture techniques.
There are several sources of the seedlessness trait, and essentially all commercial cultivators get it from one of three sources: Thompson Seedless, Russian Seedless, and Black Monukka, all being cultivars of Vitis vinifera. There are currently more than a dozen varieties of seedless grapes. Several, such as Einset Seedless, Benjamin Gunnels's Prime seedless grapes, Reliance, and Venus, have been specifically cultivated for hardiness and quality in the relatively cold climates of northeastern United States and southern Ontario.
An offset to the improved eating quality of seedlessness is the loss of potential health benefits provided by the enriched phytochemical content of grape seeds (see Health claims, below).
For more information see: Grape varieties
+ General
There are currently between 5,000 and 10,000 varieties of Vitis vinifera grapes though only a few are of commercial significance for wine and table grape production.
There are more than a thousand varieties out of which, only around 50 have the commercial significance. Some of them are Alicante, Barsana, Alphonse Lavallee, Calmeria, Cardinal, Catawba, Chasselas/Golden Chasselas, Concord, Delaware, Emperor, Hanepoot (Honeypot), Italia, Kishmish, Malaga, Niagara, Ribier, and many more.
+ Seedless grapes
Seedless cultivars now make up the overwhelming majority of table grape plantings. Because grapevines are vegetatively propagated by cuttings, the lack of seeds does not present a problem for reproduction. It is an issue for breeders, who must either use a seeded variety as the female parent or rescue embryos early in development using tissue culture techniques.
There are several sources of the seedlessness trait, and essentially all commercial cultivators get it from one of three sources: Thompson Seedless, Russian Seedless, and Black Monukka, all being cultivars of Vitis vinifera. There are currently more than a dozen varieties of seedless grapes. Several, such as Einset Seedless, Benjamin Gunnels's Prime seedless grapes, Reliance, and Venus, have been specifically cultivated for hardiness and quality in the relatively cold climates of northeastern United States and southern Ontario.
An offset to the improved eating quality of seedlessness is the loss of potential health benefits provided by the enriched phytochemical content of grape seeds (see Health claims, below).
For more information see: Grape varieties
+ Other Species of Grape vines
Most Vitis species are found in the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere in North America and Asia with a few in the tropics. The wine grape Vitis vinifera originated in southern Europe and southwestern Asia. The species occur in widely different geographical areas and show a great diversity of form.
The exact number of species is not certain, with species in Asia in particular being poorly defined. Some of the more notable include:
1- Vitis aestivalis, the Summer Grape, native to the Eastern United States, especially the Southeastern United States.
2- Vitis amurensis, native to the Asian continent, including parts of Siberia and China.
3- Vitis coignetiae Crimson Glory Vine, a species from East Asia grown as an ornamental plant for its crimson autumn foliage.
4- Vitis labrusca, the Fox grapevine, sometimes used for wine. Native to the Eastern United States and Canada.
5- Vitis riparia, the Riverbank Grapevine, sometimes used for winemaking and for jam. Native to the entire Eastern U.S. and north to Quebec.
6- Vitis rotundifolia (syn. Muscadinia rotundifolia), the Muscadine, used for jams and wine. Native to the Southeastern United States from Delaware to the Gulf of Mexico.
7- Vitis rupestris, the Rock grapevine, used for breeding of Phylloxera resistant rootstock. Native to the Southern United States.
8- Vitis vulpina, the Frost Grape, native to the Eastern United States, from Massachusetts to Florida, and west to Nebraska, Kansas, and Texas. Treated by some as a synonym of Vitis riparia.
There are many cultivars of grapevines; most are cultivars of Vitis vinifera.
Hybrid grapes also exist, and these are primarily crosses between Vitis vinifera and one or more of Vitis labrusca, Vitis riparia or Vitis aestivalis. Hybrids tend to be less susceptible to frost and disease (notably phylloxera), but wine from some hybrids may have a little of the characteristic "foxy" taste of Vitis labrusca.
Source: Vitis (grape) - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Most Vitis species are found in the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere in North America and Asia with a few in the tropics. The wine grape Vitis vinifera originated in southern Europe and southwestern Asia. The species occur in widely different geographical areas and show a great diversity of form.
The exact number of species is not certain, with species in Asia in particular being poorly defined. Some of the more notable include:
1- Vitis aestivalis, the Summer Grape, native to the Eastern United States, especially the Southeastern United States.
2- Vitis amurensis, native to the Asian continent, including parts of Siberia and China.
3- Vitis coignetiae Crimson Glory Vine, a species from East Asia grown as an ornamental plant for its crimson autumn foliage.
4- Vitis labrusca, the Fox grapevine, sometimes used for wine. Native to the Eastern United States and Canada.
5- Vitis riparia, the Riverbank Grapevine, sometimes used for winemaking and for jam. Native to the entire Eastern U.S. and north to Quebec.
6- Vitis rotundifolia (syn. Muscadinia rotundifolia), the Muscadine, used for jams and wine. Native to the Southeastern United States from Delaware to the Gulf of Mexico.
7- Vitis rupestris, the Rock grapevine, used for breeding of Phylloxera resistant rootstock. Native to the Southern United States.
8- Vitis vulpina, the Frost Grape, native to the Eastern United States, from Massachusetts to Florida, and west to Nebraska, Kansas, and Texas. Treated by some as a synonym of Vitis riparia.
There are many cultivars of grapevines; most are cultivars of Vitis vinifera.
Hybrid grapes also exist, and these are primarily crosses between Vitis vinifera and one or more of Vitis labrusca, Vitis riparia or Vitis aestivalis. Hybrids tend to be less susceptible to frost and disease (notably phylloxera), but wine from some hybrids may have a little of the characteristic "foxy" taste of Vitis labrusca.
Source: Vitis (grape) - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
4.3- Growing grape vines
Part 1- Preparing for growing
1- Choose a type of grape. As with any plant, certain types of grapes grow better in different areas and offer up different flavors and appearances. There are three general types of grapes: American, European, and Muscadine grapes.
American grapes grow best in warm, sunny climates like that of central California.
European grapes are common in Europe and Northern parts of the US.
Muscadine grapes are commonly found in the Southern US.
Within each general type of grapevine, there are multiple species to choose from which each offer up their own flavor, color, texture, and size. Visit a local nursery to find one that fits your needs and environment.
Select plants that look healthy and strong, and are 1 year old. When possible, get them certified virus-free to ensure that their healthy growth is continued.
Look for plants that have an even root distribution, and whose canes are symmetrical.
2- Prepare your own grape vine cuttings. If you or a friend has another grapevine you’d like to plant from, you can take a cutting and plant it in a new location. To use your owncuttings: Cut the sections directly from the vine or from brush that has recently been pruned off. Make sure the cutting is 3 nodes long (the nodes will look like bumps). At the bottom of the cutting, make the cut at an angle. This cut should be at 45 degrees and 1/4 to 1-inch above the node.
When taking cuttings, plant as many as possible - in as many locations as possible - to have a higher chance of success. Surplus plants can be given away.
3- Select a suitable location. Grape vines are long term plants that can live between 50 to 100 years. Therefore, make sure that the location you select is a permanent one that will offer up plenty of room for future grape vines. Grapevines thrive in sloped and hilly areas that offer up plenty of drainage and sunlight. When possible, plant your grapevines on a downward slope on a south-facing hill, in an area clear of other trees and large plants.
In cold areas be sure to plant the grape vines in a sunny area, preferably facing south. A southern facing location may prevent frost nipping the vines.
4- Prepare the soil. Grape vines are a bit picky about their soil conditions, so make sure your are just right before planting. Use soil that slightly rocky or sandy with a pH just above 7. Amend the soil to promote good drainage if necessary, as water-logged roots are not conducive to healthy growing grapevines.
Test the soil pH with an at-home kit to determine if anything needs to be added to or taken away from your soil to prepare it for planting.
Although it may seem counterintuitive, grapevines do not like soil that is too nutrient-rich. Avoid heavily fertilized soil when possible, and ask a worker at a local nursery for tailored suggestions.
5- Prepare a trellis for your grape vines. Grape vines are, as the name implies, vine plants that grow upwards along a support structure. If you are not planting your grapes along a fence or other structure, construct or buy a trellis for them to grow along. This is typically a wooden structure made of intertwined boards that allow the vines to wrap around them, providing a sturdy support system.
Latticed wood and wire can be purchased and attached to fence posts for an easy homemade trellis, if you don’t have the funds or ability to purchase or make your own.
Don’t use a single stake (as you might for tomato plants) as this won’t provide enough support for your vines once they start growing.
6- Know when to plant. Wait to plant your grapevines until a frost-free day in late winter or early spring. Pruning should happen around this time in upcoming years as well. Contact your local agricultural service for exact planting dates.
Part 1- Preparing for growing
1- Choose a type of grape. As with any plant, certain types of grapes grow better in different areas and offer up different flavors and appearances. There are three general types of grapes: American, European, and Muscadine grapes.
American grapes grow best in warm, sunny climates like that of central California.
European grapes are common in Europe and Northern parts of the US.
Muscadine grapes are commonly found in the Southern US.
Within each general type of grapevine, there are multiple species to choose from which each offer up their own flavor, color, texture, and size. Visit a local nursery to find one that fits your needs and environment.
Select plants that look healthy and strong, and are 1 year old. When possible, get them certified virus-free to ensure that their healthy growth is continued.
Look for plants that have an even root distribution, and whose canes are symmetrical.
2- Prepare your own grape vine cuttings. If you or a friend has another grapevine you’d like to plant from, you can take a cutting and plant it in a new location. To use your owncuttings: Cut the sections directly from the vine or from brush that has recently been pruned off. Make sure the cutting is 3 nodes long (the nodes will look like bumps). At the bottom of the cutting, make the cut at an angle. This cut should be at 45 degrees and 1/4 to 1-inch above the node.
When taking cuttings, plant as many as possible - in as many locations as possible - to have a higher chance of success. Surplus plants can be given away.
3- Select a suitable location. Grape vines are long term plants that can live between 50 to 100 years. Therefore, make sure that the location you select is a permanent one that will offer up plenty of room for future grape vines. Grapevines thrive in sloped and hilly areas that offer up plenty of drainage and sunlight. When possible, plant your grapevines on a downward slope on a south-facing hill, in an area clear of other trees and large plants.
In cold areas be sure to plant the grape vines in a sunny area, preferably facing south. A southern facing location may prevent frost nipping the vines.
4- Prepare the soil. Grape vines are a bit picky about their soil conditions, so make sure your are just right before planting. Use soil that slightly rocky or sandy with a pH just above 7. Amend the soil to promote good drainage if necessary, as water-logged roots are not conducive to healthy growing grapevines.
Test the soil pH with an at-home kit to determine if anything needs to be added to or taken away from your soil to prepare it for planting.
Although it may seem counterintuitive, grapevines do not like soil that is too nutrient-rich. Avoid heavily fertilized soil when possible, and ask a worker at a local nursery for tailored suggestions.
5- Prepare a trellis for your grape vines. Grape vines are, as the name implies, vine plants that grow upwards along a support structure. If you are not planting your grapes along a fence or other structure, construct or buy a trellis for them to grow along. This is typically a wooden structure made of intertwined boards that allow the vines to wrap around them, providing a sturdy support system.
Latticed wood and wire can be purchased and attached to fence posts for an easy homemade trellis, if you don’t have the funds or ability to purchase or make your own.
Don’t use a single stake (as you might for tomato plants) as this won’t provide enough support for your vines once they start growing.
6- Know when to plant. Wait to plant your grapevines until a frost-free day in late winter or early spring. Pruning should happen around this time in upcoming years as well. Contact your local agricultural service for exact planting dates.
+ Part 2: Planting Your Grape vines
1- Plant your grape vines.
Depending on the species of grapes you are planting, spacing will be different for each plant. For American and European grapes, plant each vine 1.8-3.0 m (6-10 feet) apart. Muscadines require much more space, and should be planted approximately 4.9 m (16 feet) apart. Plant the cuttings in a trench with the basal and center bud covered. The top bud should be just above the soil surface. Press the soil firmly around the newly planted grapevine cuttings.
How deep you plant the vines will depend on the age and size of each individual plant. Don’t bury the vine cane any higher than the first bud, but make sure the roots are completely covered in soil.
2- Give your plants a good watering.
Grapevines don’t prefer heavy water or rain, so after the first watering keep the amount of water you give them to a minimum. Keep water near the roots so that the majority of it gets absorbed rather than evaporated by the sun. If your area doesn’t get much rain, set up a drip system directly at the roots so that the grapevines get small amounts of water on a regular basis.
3- Prune your grape vines.
The first year, the grape vine should not be allowed to produce any fully matured fruits as these can damage the young vine with their weight. Cut back all the fruit, as well as all the vines except for the strongest that branch off the cane. In later years prune as needed following established local practices, and in older vines be sure to prune the vines back to around 90% of their wood.
4- Prune grape vines when dormant.
Always always prune grape vines when they are dormant. They will otherwise bleed their sap - losing vigour. This is typically in late winter when it is no longer cold enough to frost outside.
5- Apply pest control as needed.
Little pest control is needed as grape vines are naturally hardy. Keep weeds at bay by hand-weeding on a regular basis, and cover you grapevines in bird net to keep birds away if necessary. Seek guidance from your local gardening club or agricultural extension on how to combat the Vine Moth. It is one of the few pests that can decimate grape vines.
Be sure to plant the grape vines so they receive enough airflow to prevent powdery mildew.
Aphids can be a problem for grapevines; ladybugs are a natural consumer of aphids and will not damage your vines further.
6- Harvest your grapes when appropriate.
Strong, edible fruit likely won’t appear for anywhere from 1-3 years. When it appears, test its ripeness by picking a few grapes from different areas and tasting them. If the grapes are sweet, start picking as they ready for harvesting and eating.
Grapes will not continue to ripen after picking (as is the case with other fruits) so be sure not to pick them prematurely.
Color and size are not necessarily a good indication of ripe fruit. Only pick the fruit after you’ve tasted it and are certain it is ready.
Source: http://www.wikihow.com/Grow-Grape-Vines
1- Plant your grape vines.
Depending on the species of grapes you are planting, spacing will be different for each plant. For American and European grapes, plant each vine 1.8-3.0 m (6-10 feet) apart. Muscadines require much more space, and should be planted approximately 4.9 m (16 feet) apart. Plant the cuttings in a trench with the basal and center bud covered. The top bud should be just above the soil surface. Press the soil firmly around the newly planted grapevine cuttings.
How deep you plant the vines will depend on the age and size of each individual plant. Don’t bury the vine cane any higher than the first bud, but make sure the roots are completely covered in soil.
2- Give your plants a good watering.
Grapevines don’t prefer heavy water or rain, so after the first watering keep the amount of water you give them to a minimum. Keep water near the roots so that the majority of it gets absorbed rather than evaporated by the sun. If your area doesn’t get much rain, set up a drip system directly at the roots so that the grapevines get small amounts of water on a regular basis.
3- Prune your grape vines.
The first year, the grape vine should not be allowed to produce any fully matured fruits as these can damage the young vine with their weight. Cut back all the fruit, as well as all the vines except for the strongest that branch off the cane. In later years prune as needed following established local practices, and in older vines be sure to prune the vines back to around 90% of their wood.
4- Prune grape vines when dormant.
Always always prune grape vines when they are dormant. They will otherwise bleed their sap - losing vigour. This is typically in late winter when it is no longer cold enough to frost outside.
5- Apply pest control as needed.
Little pest control is needed as grape vines are naturally hardy. Keep weeds at bay by hand-weeding on a regular basis, and cover you grapevines in bird net to keep birds away if necessary. Seek guidance from your local gardening club or agricultural extension on how to combat the Vine Moth. It is one of the few pests that can decimate grape vines.
Be sure to plant the grape vines so they receive enough airflow to prevent powdery mildew.
Aphids can be a problem for grapevines; ladybugs are a natural consumer of aphids and will not damage your vines further.
6- Harvest your grapes when appropriate.
Strong, edible fruit likely won’t appear for anywhere from 1-3 years. When it appears, test its ripeness by picking a few grapes from different areas and tasting them. If the grapes are sweet, start picking as they ready for harvesting and eating.
Grapes will not continue to ripen after picking (as is the case with other fruits) so be sure not to pick them prematurely.
Color and size are not necessarily a good indication of ripe fruit. Only pick the fruit after you’ve tasted it and are certain it is ready.
Source: http://www.wikihow.com/Grow-Grape-Vines
4.4- Production of Grape vine on the World
+ Overview
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 75,866 square kilometers of the world are dedicated to grapes. Approximately 71% of world grape production is used for wine, 27% as fresh fruit, and 2% as dried fruit. A portion of grape production goes to producing grape juice to be reconstituted for fruits canned "with no added sugar" and "100% natural". The area dedicated to vineyards is increasing by about 2% per year.
There are no reliable statistics that break down grape production by variety. It is believed that the most widely planted variety is Sultana, also known as Thompson Seedless, with at least 3,600 km2 (880,000 acres) dedicated to it. The second most common variety is Airén. Other popular varieties include Cabernet Sauvignon,Sauvignon blanc, Cabernet Franc, Merlot, Grenache, Tempranillo, Riesling, and Chardonnay.
+ Top grape producing countries by years (in metric tons)
+ Overview
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 75,866 square kilometers of the world are dedicated to grapes. Approximately 71% of world grape production is used for wine, 27% as fresh fruit, and 2% as dried fruit. A portion of grape production goes to producing grape juice to be reconstituted for fruits canned "with no added sugar" and "100% natural". The area dedicated to vineyards is increasing by about 2% per year.
There are no reliable statistics that break down grape production by variety. It is believed that the most widely planted variety is Sultana, also known as Thompson Seedless, with at least 3,600 km2 (880,000 acres) dedicated to it. The second most common variety is Airén. Other popular varieties include Cabernet Sauvignon,Sauvignon blanc, Cabernet Franc, Merlot, Grenache, Tempranillo, Riesling, and Chardonnay.
+ Top grape producing countries by years (in metric tons)
|
2009
8,038,703 6,629,198 8,242,500 6,101,525 5,535,333 4,264,720 2,600,000 2,181,567 2,305,000 1,748,590 58,521,41 |
2010
8,651,831 6,777,731 7,787,800 5,794,433 6,107,617 4,255,000 2,903,000 2,616,613 2,225,000 1,743,496 58,292,10 |
2011
9,174,280 6,756,449 7,115,500 6,588,904 5,809,315 4,296,351 3,149,380 2,750,000 2,240,000 1,683,927 58,500,11 |
2012
9,600,000 F 6,661,820 5,819,010 5,338,512 5,238,300 4,275,659 3,200,000 F 2,800,000 F 2,150,000 F 1,839,030 67,067,128 |
Source: UN Food & Agriculture Organization (F=FAO estimate)
+ Top producers of grapes for wine making, by area planted
+ Top producers of grapes for wine making, by area planted
See Video about: Vitis vinifera vines
See Video about: Grape Cultivation - Sample Clip